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        In this study, 25 soda glass samples discovered at four Early Iron Age sites in Xinjiang were analyzed using LA-ICP-AES, LA-ICP-MS and SR-μCT. The analysis results show that these soda glass beads may have been brought from the Levant, and the similar decoration and chemical composition indicate their common origin. This study further discusses the route through which early soda glass entered China through Xinjiang and Gansu, and that the soda glass beads discovered at the Chu Tombs in Hubei Province may have different sources. In addition, this study also revealed differences in the production and distribution process of Xinjiang soda glass between the Western Han Dynasty and earlier periods, reflecting the changes in cultural exchange between the East and West before and after the opening of the Silk Road.
       Soda glass is a soda-lime mineral glass made using natron from the Wadi Natrun and Barnuj evaporite deposits in Egypt as a fluxing raw material. Soda glass first appeared in Egypt around 1000 BCE and then spread to Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, the Levant, and Europe. By about the 5th century BCE, soda glass had become the dominant type of glass west of the Euphrates River, laying the foundation for the prosperity and glory of the Roman glass industry.
       Soda glass appeared in China around the middle of the first millennium BC and was found in Hubei, Henan, Xinjiang, Gansu, Liaoning, Yunnan and other provinces2,3,4,5,6,7. The artifacts are mainly eye-shaped beads, and there are also a small number of single-color beads. Previous studies mainly analyzed the major elements of glass beads, such as flux, dye, opacifier, etc., and suggested that this type of glass may have been imported from Egypt or the Mediterranean region. In recent years, some scholars have used the internationally recognized LA-ICP-MS soda glass source analysis method8,9,10,11,12,13,14 to analyze the major and trace elements of Chinese soda glass and obtain high-quality source identification data. Lin Zhiqiang et al. determined that the soda glass beads unearthed from the Majiayuan Warring States Cemetery in Gansu Province came from the Mediterranean region based on the Sr6 content. In the process of systematically summarizing the composition and technical system of soda glass from the 8th to the 2nd centuries BC, Lu Zhijun et al. suggested that the soda glass unearthed from the Wubao Cemetery in Hami, Xinjiang was brought from the Levant. By comparing the typological characteristics of the natron glass beads unearthed from Xinjiang and the Central Plains, it can be concluded that although the trace element groups are the same, there are typological differences. The natron glass beads in Xinjiang are mostly single-colored, while those in the Central Plains are mostly eye-shaped. Therefore, they suggested that the soda glass found in the Central Plains must have been imported directly from the Eurasian steppe rather than brought to the Hexi Corridor via Xinjiang. 5 Ma Jianjun et al. conducted LA-ICP-MS analysis of soda-lime glass beads from the Warring States period found in Hubei, Yunnan and other places and assigned them to the Levantine group proposed by Lu et al. They noted that the number of eyeballs excavated in the State of Chu during this period far exceeded those found in other parts of China during the same period, indicating that the Chu people had some demand for eyeballs. Soda-lime glass from the Levant was likely an important raw material for the production of lead-barium glass in the State of Chu. Therefore, they speculated that there must have been direct glass trade between Chu and the Mediterranean region. 4 To sum up, based on the views of predecessors, the natron glass beads that appeared in the Central Plains from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period were not introduced through Xinjiang.
       Previous archaeological discoveries and studies have shown that since the 1,000-year-old B.C., with the spread and popularization of nomadic culture in Xinjiang, the scope of human activity has expanded to an unprecedented extent, and the depth and breadth of cultural exchanges and integration have continued to deepen. At the same time, the Yellow River Basin agricultural culture, represented by painted ceramics, spread westward and met the nomadic culture of the northern steppes of the Tianshan region, which is especially evident from the glass beads excavated in this region. During this period, wood ash glass beads and soda-lime glass beads from the West were discovered in Baicheng, Tacheng, Turpan, Hami and other places in Xinjiang15,16,17, and high-potassium ceramic beads and lead-barium glass beads from the Central Plains were discovered in Hami, Urumqi and other places.18,19 This indicates that Xinjiang became an important bridge connecting eastern and western cultures during this period. However, the spread of soda glass in Xinjiang during this period and its influence on the Central Plains have not yet been fully studied.
       In this regard, this study systematically analyzed the glass beads found in Xinjiang since the first millennium BC, selected soda glass for detailed process and source studies, and re-examined the possible routes of soda glass penetration into the Central Plains to further reveal the long-term influence of the Mediterranean civilization on China during this period.
       In this study, 25 soda glass samples were collected from four Early Iron Age cemeteries located along the Tianshan Mountains in Xinjiang, namely, Jirentaigou Cemetery, Jiragou Village Cemetery, Qirentouhai Cemetery, and Alagou Cemetery. The first three cemeteries are located in the Ili Region of the Western Tianshan Mountains, while Jiragou Village Cemetery is located in Urumqi City of the Central Tianshan Mountains. The specific locations of the four cemeteries are shown in Figure 1. The excavation unit, age, and characteristic description of the samples are shown in Table 1. Regarding the age of the samples, the ages of two samples from Alagou Cemetery were determined by carbon isotope dating and marked with asterisks, while the ages of the other samples were indicated based on the total age and typological stage of the site.
       All the soda glass beads used in this study are eye beads, which have similar colors and decorative features. Two specimens from the Tuohai Cemetery in Qi were heavily damaged and weathered. Figure 2 shows representative photographs of the analyzed intact soda glass beads. Based on the decorative features on the surface of the beads, most of these eye beads have a light green matrix with a white coating on the matrix. On the white coating, there are one or two black concentric circles (“eye circles”), and a dark blue “pupil” in the center of the eye circles. In addition, some specimens had a white opaque matrix instead of a light green one. Although the decorative styles of these eye beads are similar, they still differ slightly. For example, the surface patterns of glass beads in Jiaga Village Cemetery, Qirentouhai Cemetery and Alagou Cemetery are relatively orderly, and the “pupil” patterns are neatly arranged, while the surface patterns of glass beads in Jirentaigoukou Cemetery are somewhat disorderly.
       Samples taken from Jirentaigou Cemetery; b Jiaga Village Cemetery; c Alagou Cemetery; Scale bar: 1 mm.
       The samples analyzed in this study were mostly intact eyeballs, except for a few fragments. The chemical composition analysis scheme in this study was to perform non-destructive LA-ICP-AES analysis directly on the surface of the intact glass bead sample to obtain its basic chemical composition data. Three glass bead fragments were then subjected to destructive LA-ICP-MS analysis. Prior to testing, the parts were embedded in epoxy resin and polished to ensure a smooth analysis surface. This preparation is critical to ensure the accuracy and stability of laser ablation and signal detection, remove weathered layers on the glass samples, and eliminate surface contaminants, thereby ensuring the reliability of the data. In addition, this method allows the surface roughness of the samples to be matched to that of the reference material, thereby improving the repeatability and accuracy of the experiment20.
       Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry (LA-ICP-AES): LA-ICP-AES analysis was performed using the LEEMAN-Prodigy ICP-AES and NEW-WAVE laser ablation systems located in the School of Archaeology and Museology, Peking University. The testing parameters included an RF generator frequency of 40.82 MHz, an RF power of 1.1 kW, an argon plasma flow rate of 1.4 L/min, a nebulizer pressure of 30 psi, a laser wavelength of 266 nm, and a spot aperture of 780 μm. Corning B was used as the reference standard, and the data quality was checked by reanalysis with Corning D (Table S1). The detection limit for most elements was ~0.1 wt%.
       Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS): LA-ICP-MS is used for in situ microarea analysis of trace elements at Beijing Chuangke Testing Technology Co., Ltd. Analytik Jena PQMS Elite ICP-MS and RESOlution 193 nm excimer laser ablation system were used. The ablation laser beam diameter was 30 μm, the frequency was 6 Hz, the energy density was ~6 J/cm2, and high-purity helium was used as the carrier gas. The instrument was calibrated for optimal performance using NIST 610 prior to testing. Single-point ablation was used for LA-ICP-MS. The test procedure consisted of collecting a blank background for 20 seconds with the laser beam blocked, followed by 45 seconds of continuous sample ablation, followed by a 20-second post-ablation purge to clear the sample introduction system, for a total of 85 seconds per analysis point. Every 10 ablation points, quantitative elemental calibration was performed using a set of NIST 610, NIST 612, BHVO-2G, BCR-2G, and BIR-1G standards. The detection limit of most trace elements is less than 1 ppm. Data quality was assessed using duplicate analyses of standard control samples (Table S1). Analytical data were processed off-line using ICPMSDataCal software21,22, including selection of sample and blank signals, instrument drift correction, and calculation of elemental concentrations.
       In addition, we performed synchrotron radiation micro-CT (SR-μCT) on intact eyeball samples to non-destructively study their internal structure. This method has been repeatedly used for non-destructive analysis of the internal structure and manufacturing process of ancient beads23,24,25. The experiment was conducted at the X-ray imaging experimental station (BL13W1) of the Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Center. During the experiment, the distance between the sample and the detector was 1 m, the spatial resolution of the CCD detector was 9 μm, and the exposure time was 0.03 s.
       The results of LA-ICP-AES and LA-ICP-MS analyses are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The relatively low content of MgO and K2O is a typical characteristic of soda glass. The chemical composition analysis data presented in this study showed that the content of MgO and K2O in the analyzed glass beads was less than 1.5%, which is consistent with the unique properties of soda glass26.
       From Tables 2 and 3, it can be seen that the dark blue glass in the pupil portion of the eyeball specimen is stained with Co2+, and the CoO content is more than 0.2%. The higher Sb2O3 content in the white rim of the eye indicates the use of an antimony-based opacifier (CaSb2O6) to make this portion of the glass opaque white. The green glass of the pearl may be stained with Cu2+ or Fe2+. In addition, the white glass portion of specimen JRT-G6 has higher contents of CuO, PbO, SnO2, and P2O5 than the other specimens. Since the tomb contained both bronze artifacts and human remains, the high levels of CuO, PbO, SnO2, and P2O5 in this specimen may have been due to surface contamination from the burial environment. CuO, PbO, and SnO2 may be the result of contamination in the bronze artifacts, while P2O5 may be the source of hydroxyapatite in human bones. Furthermore, no similar anomalies in the concentrations of these elements were detected in the area of ​​coloured glass surrounding the beads, ruling out the possibility of contamination from laser ablation sampling in adjacent areas. Furthermore, the use of bone ash as an opacifier for clear glass can be traced back to the 5th century in Jordan and Italy, but it did not become widespread until the 14th century.27 However, the samples in this study are much older, and only one of them showed elevated levels of CaO and P2O5. Therefore, a more likely explanation is that the elevated concentrations of these elements are due to contamination from human remains at burial sites, rather than intentional addition.
       According to existing research, the strontium concentration in soda glass can often be used as a key indicator of the type of sand used, since the strontium content is directly related to the source of calcium in the glass. It is generally assumed that calcium-rich sand, such as coastal sand, was used in the production of soda glass, so the source of calcium can indicate the origin of the sand. During geological diagenesis, when aragonite is converted to calcite, a large amount of strontium is consumed from calcium carbonate, resulting in a significantly lower strontium content in calcite compared to aragonite. Therefore, the strontium concentration in limestone is lower than that in shells. Thus, previous studies have generally concluded that high strontium contents in glass (>300 ppm) indicate the use of coastal sands for the production of soda glass, while low strontium contents indicate the use of inland sands.28
       According to the data analyzed in this study (Figure 3), except for the calcium antimonate emulsified glass (white glass), the strontium content of other colored glasses (cobalt blue glass and green glass) exceeds 300 ppm. The concentrations of CaO and Sr showed a positive linear correlation, indicating that the source may be shells, suggesting the use of coastal sand. The data of white glass are relatively scattered, probably because some of the control points are located on calcium antimonate particles.
       According to previous research, there are two methods for making eyeballs. One is to successively apply glass materials of different colors to the bead, with the color gradually fading from top to bottom, forming concentric circles. The other method is to first make the “eyes” using the same method, and then insert them before the bead hardens. Another method is to dip a glass rod into different colored glass liquids one by one. After the glass rod hardens, it is cut into small sections, each of which forms an “eye”, which is then embedded in a semi-molten drop. This method is called the “cut rod method”29.
       In order to observe the internal structure and the manufacturing process of the solid glass eyeball, a typical sample was selected for SR-μCT observation. FIG. 4 is an SR-μCT image of sample JGC-G1. It can be clearly seen from the image that the eyeball sample was manufactured using the first manufacturing method, which is to pre-fabricate the layered “eyeball” and then embed it into the semi-molten bead. In addition, the white coating on the surface of the bead is connected to the lower layer of the “eyeball” in the cross section, indicating that the white coating was applied to the bead and then embedded into the “eyeball”. Thus, the process of making such glass eye beads can be reconstructed: first, a layered “eyeball” is made, then the body of the bead is made, after which a layer of white glass liquid is applied to the surface of the body of the bead, and the hardened “eyeball” is embedded in the semi-molten body of the bead.
       The left image is an SR-μCT image of sample JGC-G1; the right image is sample JGC-G1; the scale bar is 1 mm.
       The study of the source of soda glass mainly includes two aspects: the source of flux and the source of sand raw material. Previous studies on the source of soda glass raw material have reached a broad consensus. Both ancient literary sources and field research results indicate that the main source of soda glass is the Wadi Natrun and Barnuj natron deposits in Egypt1. The source of soda glass flux is relatively clear, so the study of the source of soda glass can essentially be simplified to the study of the source of sand raw material30.
       Freestone et al. summarized the pattern of soda glass production in the first millennium BCE and believed that soda glass production often consisted of a few large primary glass production centers and numerous secondary glass workshops.31,32 The main glass production center imported soda raw materials, added local sand and soil, and produced large quantities of glass ingots, which were then sent to various glass processing workshops to make a variety of glass products. Regarding soda glass production in the first millennium BCE, Lü et al. summarized the production of soda glass during this period. Using several groups of major and trace elements reflecting the characteristics of sand sources, they divided soda glass from this period into three major categories and one minor category, representing the major primary production centers at the time, and inferred the probable origins of these types of soda glass.5
       As shown in Table 1, all the samples in this study are dated to the first millennium BC, with an upper limit of around 700 BC and a lower limit of around 200 BC. Therefore, this study refers to the soda glass classification method of Liu et al.5 to analyze the sources of the samples. As mentioned earlier, three soda glass eyeball fragments were selected for this analysis. Since destructive analyses were required, the obtained trace element data were relatively complete and reliable. Judging from the typology and major element characteristics of most of the samples in this study, the compositional characteristics of the soda glass eyeballs are similar, and the colors and typologies used are also very similar. Therefore, the trace element data in these three fragment samples should be representative of this batch of samples.
       In Figure 5, the major and trace element data for the different colored glasses in these three samples are combined into a soda glass classification chart by Liu et al. for comparison with their data. Liu et al. pointed out that the different types in Figure 5 correspond to different sources of siliceous materials: Type I could have originated in Italy, Type I0 could have originated in the central Mediterranean, Type II could have originated in the Levant, and Type III could have originated in Egypt. In addition, this study was combined with recently published LA-ICP-MS data on soda glass from central China during the Warring States period, which are included in Figure 5 for subsequent discussion.
       Scatter plot of TiO2 (wt%) versus Al2O3 (wt%); b Scatter plot of Nd (ppm) versus Sr (ppm); c Scatter plot of Th (ppm) versus Zr (ppm); d Scatter plot of Th (ppm) versus Ba (ppm); e Sr (ppm) versus CaO (wt%); f Scatter plot of TiO2 (wt%) versus Nd (ppm); g Scatter plot of Th (ppm) versus Nd (ppm); h Scatter plot of Th (ppm) versus La (ppm). WS: Warring States period; EWS: Early Warring States period; MWS: Middle Warring States period; LWS: Late Warring States period.
       As shown in Figure 5, all the soda glass eyeballs from the Warring States period discovered in Xinjiang are concentrated in the Type II region, and they are suggested to originate from the Levant region. Combining the data from this study with the analysis of soda glass from the Wubao cemetery in Xinjiang by Liu et al.5, it can be concluded that the main source of soda glass in Xinjiang during the Early Iron Age was probably the Syrian-Palestinian coast.
       As mentioned above, past scholars generally believed that the early soda glass in the Central Plains was imported from the Levant region and directly entered the Central Plains via the Eurasian steppe, which influenced the development of early glass craft in China. According to this study, the soda glass beads discovered in Xinjiang are not isolated cases, but a certain number of them were found in several places. These soda glass beads have similar patterns and similar major and trace element compositions, indicating that they were made in the same place and perhaps even in the same workshop.
       Further comparison with published trace element data of soda glasses from other regions of China (Hubei and Yunnan)4 shows that most of the soda glasses from the Warring States period in Hubei belong to the Type II region, which may be similar to the source of soda glasses found in Xinjiang during the same period, both of which were obtained from the Levant region. In contrast to the soda glasses found in Xinjiang, the data on soda glasses found in Hubei are relatively sparse, especially for the early Warring States period soda glasses. As shown in Figure 5, the three early Warring States period soda glasses from Hubei have low Sr and Nd contents, with Sr contents below 300 ppm in all samples, suggesting that their source may be limestone rather than shell. In terms of Sr-CaO ratio, these three glass samples show a linear positive correlation similar to that of Type I glass, indicating that they may have similar CaO sources and may have been made from domestically mined sand and gravel. This suggests that there may have been multiple sources of soda glass in Hubei during the early Warring States period. In addition, the soda glass found in Yunnan is significantly different from that found in Xinjiang and Hubei, indicating that they may have different origins.
       According to the decorative and color characteristics, the natron glass beads unearthed in Xinjiang during this period are mostly in the shape of “eyeballs” and have color combinations such as cobalt blue, light green, white and dark brown (four-color combination) or cobalt blue, white and dark brown (three-color combination). Eyeballs with this feature were found in Majiayuan Cemetery in Gansu (6), Dongdazhangzi Cemetery in Liaoning (7), Zenghoui Tomb in Hubei (3) and other places. After analysis, it was found that this type of glass beads are soda glass. The Sr content of similar natron glass beads unearthed in Majiayuan Cemetery in Gansu exceeds 300 parts per million. Like the soda glass beads in Xinjiang, they must be made from coastal sand.
       From the above comparison, it can be seen that the main production areas of the natron glass beads of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period unearthed in Xinjiang are mainly located in the Levant region. Combining the similarities and differences in the patterns and chemical compositions of the natron glass excavated in Hubei Province, it can be concluded that there were many routes for the introduction of natron glass into China during this period. Among them, cobalt blue, light green, white and dark brown (four-color combination) and cobalt blue, white and dark brown (three-color combination) eyeballs may have been introduced from Xinjiang to Hubei via Gansu.
       From a historical perspective, Xinjiang entered the late stage of the Early Iron Age during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. During this period, the integration of the Eurasian steppe nomadic culture accelerated, and the influence of the factors of the northern steppe nomadic culture on the social development of the southern oasis areas was unprecedented in depth and breadth. During this period, eastern and western documents began to record the history of the northern nomadic peoples almost simultaneously. The nomadic peoples became the driving force behind the development of Eurasian world history, and the relationship between the nomadic tribes in the north and the oasis farming tribes in the south gradually became the central theme of Eurasian historical narratives. The campaigns of the nomadic peoples to the east and west, as well as the migrations to the south and north, promoted the exchanges and complementarities between the nomadic culture and the oasis culture. Cultural exchanges in the Eurasian world entered a period of unprecedented prosperity. During this period, the exchange of cultures between the East and West was also reflected in the spread of iron products and iron smelting technology. Before 3000 BC, meteoric iron products were found in the Middle East, including Iran, the Mesopotamian Valley, and Egypt. In ancient northern Turkey, the region of Paphlagonia was the earliest site of artificial iron smelting. Between 1500 and 1000 BC, iron smelting technology began to spread to parts of Europe, Asia, and North Africa. 33 In the Late Bronze Age, people in the upper Ili River region began to become familiar with iron tools. 34 By the early 1st millennium BC, iron tools were already in widespread use in the upper Ili River region, and iron production technology was quickly adopted by prehistoric people throughout the Tian Shan region. 35 From the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, the people of Gansu and Qinghai began to use iron tools more widely. Iron tools were used in the Central Plains from the late Western Zhou Dynasty to the early Spring and Autumn Period. They became increasingly popular from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period. The introduction of iron tools from Western and Central Asia to the Central Plains contributed to the rapid development of labor productivity in the Central Plains region.
       During this period, the relationship between the Central Plains culture and the Xinjiang culture became increasingly close. In addition to the Painted Pottery Culture of the Gansu and Qinghai regions, which continued to influence the Tianshan region, such representative elements of the Central Plains culture as silk fabrics, lacquerware, and bronze mirrors also spread to other parts of Central Asia via Xinjiang. A piece of simple silk embroidery with a phoenix design was discovered in the Alagou cemetery, which is very similar to the phoenix design found in the Jiangling Chu tomb. Chinese silk, bronze mirrors, and lacquerware dating from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC have been found in tombs of the Pazyryk culture at the northern foot of the Altai Mountains.38 These cultural relics fully demonstrate the depth and breadth of the influence of the Central Plains culture on the Tianshan region.
       Combined with data from other glass types, it can be concluded that straw-ash soda-lime glass appeared in Xinjiang in the early first millennium BC. By the middle of the first millennium BC, a variety of glass beads had appeared in Xinjiang, including soda-lime glass, natron glass, and lead-barium glass, among which soda-lime glass was the most common. This suggests that from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, soda-lime glass, which was continuously produced east of the Euphrates River and in Central Asia, remained the dominant glass type in Xinjiang during this period. However, in the Early Iron Age, low-magnesium and low-potassium glass, probably made using natron as a flux, has been found at Hasanrud and Nimrud east of the Euphrates River.40 Similarly, during the same period, natron glass was discovered in Xinjiang, strongly suggesting the existence of a long-distance trade route for natron glass from the Mediterranean to Xinjiang. The discovery of lead-barium glass in Xinjiang further confirmed the influence of the Central Plains, and it is very likely that natron glass also spread eastward to the Central Plains via this route.
       All these data support the view that during this period soda glass could have been transported eastward over long distances from the Mediterranean region to Central China via Xinjiang.
       According to previous studies, natron glass beads have been found in Xinjiang as early as the Western Han Dynasty. The colors and patterns of some of these items were similar to the natron glass beads from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods excavated in Xinjiang. For example, the glass beads unearthed from the Shanpula and Bizilli cemeteries on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin are mainly cobalt blue, white, and brown in color, which is similar to the samples studied in this paper.41,42 However, judging from the internal structure of the natron glass beads unearthed from these two sites, SR-μCT analysis revealed that the “eyes” on the surface of the natron glass beads unearthed from the Shanpula cemetery were made using the aforementioned truncated rod method, which is different from the samples studied in this paper. Among the natron glass beads found at the Bizila cemetery are beads with the eye inlay technique similar to those found at the Shanpula cemetery, as well as beads similar to the specimens studied in this paper.
       Lu et al. mentioned that a characteristic feature of the soda glass in Xinjiang is the cobalt blue monochrome beads5. Available evidence suggests that only one such bead has been found in the Wubao Cemetery in Hami, Xinjiang, from the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period. Three cobalt blue monochrome soda glass beads43 have been discovered at the Han Dynasty excavation site of Niya on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin, which may be similar to those found in the Wubao Cemetery. Whether these two discoveries have the same origin remains to be studied by relevant scholars in the future.
       This shows that the production area of ​​natron glass beads in Xinjiang during the Western Han Dynasty may have changed compared with the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the route of their transmission may also have been different. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, natron glass beads were mainly distributed in the Tianshan Mountains, while in the Western Han Dynasty, natron glass beads were mainly distributed in the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. The production process of natron eyeballs in the Western Han Dynasty was also different from the previous period, and various eye-shaped inlay techniques appeared. All of this seems to indicate that with the opening of the Silk Road in the Han Dynasty, the nature and route of cultural exchanges between the East and the West in Xinjiang underwent major changes.
       In this study, the chemical composition of 25 tea glass beads unearthed from the Early Iron Age tombs in Xinjiang was analyzed by LA-ICP-AES to identify their raw material types. Some typical samples were analyzed by LA-ICP-MS and SR-μCT to trace their sources and infer their production process. The analysis results indicate that the tea glass in Xinjiang during this period may have been imported from the Levant. The appearance and decoration are similar, and the chemical composition data are close, indicating a uniform source.
       The study further compared the natron glass beads excavated in Xinjiang with those found in the Central Plains during the same period, and found that natron glass may have been introduced to the Central Plains via Xinjiang, Gansu and other places. The natron glass beads discovered in the Chu tombs in Hubei may have had different origins, and some of them may have been brought from Xinjiang. The connection between Hubei and Xinjiang during this period is supported by materials such as textiles with typical Chu characteristics found in the excavation of the Alagou cemetery in Xinjiang. The discovery of natron glass may be further evidence of the connection between the two sites.
       Soda glass was discovered in Xinjiang during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and continued to appear during the Western Han Dynasty, but its distribution area was different. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the production of Xinjiang soda glass was mainly concentrated in the Tianshan region. During the Western Han Dynasty, soda glass was mainly distributed in a few places on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. These soda glass beads have similar patterns and colors, but the production process is different. The inlay technique of soda glass beads in the Western Han Dynasty changed compared with the previous period, indicating that the production sources of these beads may have been different. This may reflect the differences and changes in the material and cultural exchanges between the East and West in Xinjiang before and after the opening of the Silk Road through glass beads.